Quantitative study on GHG emissions and the GWP influence of cemetery green space maintenance based on LCA
Abstract
Cemetery landscapes are austere and generally require maintenance. The materials and equipment used for maintenance emit greenhouse gases (GHGs). This research aimed to quantify the annual GHG emissions and global warming potential (GWP) indices of traditional and natural cemeteries for more environmentally friendly green and grey facility planning of cemetery areas. Based on life cycle assessment (LCA), in Yorkshire, UK, as an example, traditional cemeteries were found to be mostly established with landscaped cemetery facilities, and natural cemeteries were found to include mostly underground burials covered with wild plants. The average GHG emissions per hm2 in traditional cemetery maintenance (1,552.88 kg/CO2-e) were 1.8 times those in natural cemeteries (870.88 kg/CO2-e). In the cemetery plant community, the mean GHG emissions for grassland maintenance (1,867.65 kg/CO2-e) were 6.7, 2.8 and 2.3 times higher than the woodland, meadow and shrub maintenance values of 280.77, 673.03 and 821.00 kg/CO2-e, respectively. The mean GWP indexes for traditional and natural cemetery green space maintenance were 0.027 and 0.015, respectively, which were generally higher than those for urban green space maintenance (0.010). This research recommends replacing grasslands with wild meadows, reducing the size of ground cemetery facilities and limiting the application of maintenance materials (i.e., irrigation water and pesticides) to reduce the environmental impact of green space in cemeteries.
Keyword : cemetery green space, global warming potential, greenhouse gas emissions, life cycle assessment, management and maintenance, plant community
How to Cite
Liu, Y., Lei, Y., Johnston, D. M., Jiang, M., Dong, N., Xie, D., Ma, Z., Zhang, X., & Guo, N. (2023). Quantitative study on GHG emissions and the GWP influence of cemetery green space maintenance based on LCA. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management, 31(1), 67–81. https://doi.org/10.3846/jeelm.2023.18488
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
Abu-Ghunmi, L., Zeeman, G., Fayyad, M., & van Lier, J. B. (2011). Grey water treatment systems: A review. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 41(7), 657–698. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643380903048443
Bartlett, M. D., & James, I. T. (2011). Are golf courses a source or sink of atmospheric carbon dioxide? A modelling approach. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part P: Journal of Sports Engineering and Technology, 225(2), 75–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754337110396014
Beebeejaun, Y., McClymont, K., Maddrell, A., Mathijssen, B., & McNally, D. (2021). Death in the peripheries: Planning for minority ethnic groups beyond “the city”. Journal of Planning Education and Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X211043275
Boret, S. (2010). From social to ecological immortality: Kinship, identity and death in Japanese tree-burial. Oxford Brookes University.
Brown, P., Broomfield, M., Buys, G., Cardenas, L., Kilroy, E., MacCarthy, J., Murrells, T., Pang, Y., Passant, N., Ramirez, G. J., Thistlethwaite, G., & Webb, N. (2016). UK Annual National Inventory report: 1990-2014. Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy.
Cao, L., Li, M., Wang, X., Zhao, Z., & Pan, X. (2014). Life cycle assessment of carbon footprint for rice production in Shanghai. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 34(2), 491–499. https://doi.org/10.5846/stxb201304240794
Clayden, A., Green, T., Hockey, J., & Powell, M. (2014). Natural burial: Landscape, practice and experience. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315771694
Clayden, A., Green, T., Hockey, J., & Powell, M. (2017). Cutting the lawn – natural burial and its contribution to the delivery of ecosystem services in urban cemeteries. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 33, 99–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.08.012
Colombo, A. D. (2016). Why Europe has never been united (not even in the afterworld): The fall and rise of cremation in cities (1876–1939). Death Studies, 41(1), 22–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2016.1257881
Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment. (2007). Cemeteries, churchyards and burial grounds. Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment.
Darlington Historical Society. (2022, January 05). The historic development of cemeteries in England. https://darlingtonhistoricalsociety.wordpress.com/general-information/the-historic-development-of-cemeteries-in-england/
Davis, S. L., & Dukes, M. D. (2014). Irrigation of residential landscapes using the toro intelli-sense controller in southwest Florida. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 140(3), 04013020. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0000694
Dominguez, S., Laso, J., Margallo, M., Aldaco, R., Rivero, M. J., Irabien, Á., & Ortiz, I. (2018). LCA of greywater management within a water circular economy restorative thinking framework. Science of the Total Environment, 621, 1047–1056. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.122
Dunnett, N., & Hitchmough, J. (2014). The dynamic landscape: Design, ecology and management of naturalistic urban planting. Routledge.
EDINA. (2018, April 30). Digimap, England. http://digimap.edina.ac.uk/roam/os
Fountoulakis, M. S., Markakis, N., Petousi, I., & Manios, T. (2016). Single house on-site grey water treatment using a submerged membrane bioreactor for toilet flushing. Science of the Total Environment, 551–552, 706–711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.02.057
Gabarró, J., Batchellí, L., Balaguer, M. D., Puig, S., & Colprim, J. (2013). Grey water treatment at a sports centre for reuse in irrigation: A case study. Environmental Technology, 34(11), 1385–1392. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2012.750382
Google Map. (2018, May 12). Yorkshire, England. https://www.google.co.uk/maps/place/Yorkshire,+UK/@53.928258,-2.3285799,214708m
Gu, C., Crane II, J., Hornberger, G., & Carrico, A. (2015). The effects of household management practices on the global warming potential of urban lawns. Journal of Environmental Management, 151, 233–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.01.008
Haas, G., Wetterich, F., & Köpke, U. (2001). Comparing intensive, extensified and organic grassland farming in southern Germany by process life cycle assessment. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 83(1–2), 43–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(00)00160-2
Historic England. (2022, January 03). Landscapes of remembrance: Register of parks and gardens selection guide. https://historicengland.org.uk/images-books/publications/drpgsg-landscapes-remembrance/heag091-landscapes-of-remembrance-rpgsg/
Hitchmough, J. (2008). Plant user handbook: A guide to effective specifying. Wiley.
Hsien, C., Low, J. S. C., Fuchen, S. C., & Han, T. W. (2019). Life cycle assessment of water supply in Singapore — A water-scarce urban city with multiple water sources. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 151, 104476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.104476
Ingram, D. L. (2012). Life cycle assessment of a field-grown red maple tree to estimate its carbon footprint components. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 17(4), 453–462. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-012-0398-7
Integrated Knowledge for our Environment. (2021, August 3). IKE eBalance 4.7.14120.518, Cheng Du, China. http://www.ike-global.com/#/
Jeong, H., Broesicke, O. A., Drew, B., & Crittenden, J. C. (2018). Life cycle assessment of small-scale greywater reclamation systems combined with conventional centralized water systems for the city of Atlanta, Georgia. Journal of Cleaner Production, 174, 333–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.10.193
Jo, H. K., & McPherson, G. E. (1995). Carbon storage and flux in urban residential greenspace. Journal of Environmental Management, 45(2), 109–133. https://doi.org/10.1006/jema.1995.0062
Kato, M. (2001). Cremation and the change of the double funeral system in the Amami and Okinawa societies of Japan. Bulletin of the Folklore Society of Japan, 228(1–34), 182.
Kaufman, M. (1999). Recycling yourself (ecological burial). Earth Island Journal, 14(2), 37–38.
Li, S. H. (2010). Symbiosis and circulation− the basic thought of urban green space construction under low-carbon economic society. Chinese Landscape Architecture, 26(6), 19–22. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1000-6664.2010.06.010
Li, X., Hu, F., Bowman, D., & Shi, W. (2013). Nitrous oxide production in turfgrass systems: Effects of soil properties and grass clipping recycling. Applied Soil Ecology, 67, 61–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2013.03.002
Li, X., Yang, Y., Xu, X., Xu, C., & Hong, J. (2016). Air pollution from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons generated by human activities and their health effects in China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 112, 1360–1367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.05.077
Lindholst, A. C. (2008). Improving contract design and management for urban green-space maintenance through action research. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 7(2), 77–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2008.02.001
Liu, Y., & Yang, Q. (2019). The quantitative research of the maintenance environmental impacts in the urban greenspace based on LCA. Chinese Landscape Architecture, 35(10), 124–129. https://doi.org/10.19775/j.cla.2019.10.0124
Liu, Y., Yang, Q., & Duan, L. (2018). Adjusting the structure combinations of plant communities in Urban greenspace reduced the maintenance energy consumption and GHG emissions. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management, 26(4), 261–274. https://doi.org/10.3846/jeelm.2018.6126
Mapbox. (2018, April 26). Outdoors studio. https://www.mapbox.com/studio/styles/kkelivnliu/cjh2tggxy1pw92smmqxxyycan/edit/?layerIds
McCready, M. S., & Dukes, M. D. (2011). Landscape irrigation scheduling efficiency and adequacy by various control technologies. Agricultural Water Management, 98(4), 697–704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2010.11.007
McCready, M. S., Dukes, M. D., & Miller, G. L. (2009). Water conservation potential of smart irrigation controllers on St. Augustinegrass. Agricultural Water Management, 96(11), 1623–1632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2009.06.007
McKenzie, J. (2018, December 21). Greenhouse gas footprint of maintained landscape. https://thefield.asla.org/2010/06/08/greenhouse-gas-footprint-of-maintained-landscapes/
Met Office. (2018, April 25). UK Climate. https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/climate/gcqzwtdw7
Ministry of Justice. (2007). Burial Grounds: The results of a survey of burial grounds in England and Wales. Ministry of Justice.
Ministry of Justice. (2009). Natural burial grounds guidance for operators. Ministry of Justice.
Mukherjee, P., Das, M., Mukherjee, B., & Das, S. (2020). Optimization of irrigation design technique for pumping units through software simulation analysis for varied landscapes. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 505, 012025. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/505/1/012025
National Standardization Administration. (2021). General rules for calculation of the comprehensive energy consumption (GB/T 2589-2020). Beijing.
National Statistics. (2019, June 24). UK local authority and regional carbon dioxide emissions national statistics: 2005-2019. Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy. https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/uk-local-authority-and-regional-carbon-dioxide-emissions-national-statistics
Nowak, D. J., Hirabayashi, S., Bodine, A., & Greenfield, E. (2014). Tree and forest effects on air quality and human health in the United States. Environmental Pollution, 193, 119–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.05.028
Nowak, D. J., Hirabayashi, S., Doyle, M., McGovern, M., & Pasher, J. (2018). Air pollution removal by urban forests in Canada and its effect on air quality and human health. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 29, 40–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.10.019
Oestigaard, T. (1999). Cremations as transformations: When the dual cultural hypothesis was cremaed and carried away in urns. European Journal of Archaeology, 2(3), 345–364. https://doi.org/10.1177/146195719900200304
Peace Funerals. (2018, April 21). Golden Valley Woodland burial ground. https://www.peacenaturalburials.co.uk/locations/golden-valley
Philo, C. (2012). Troubled proximities: Asylums cemeteries in nineteenth-century England. History of Psychiatry, 23(1), 91–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957154X11428931
Röös, E. (2013). Analysing the carbon footprint of food. Insight for consumer communication [Doctoral thesis No. 2013:56]. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences.
Rotar, M. (2011). European echoes upon Romanian cremationist movement. Annales Universitatis Apulensis Series Historica, 15(Special), 279–288.
Rugg, J. (2013a). Choice and constraint in the burial landscape: Re-evaluating twentieth-century commemoration in the English churchyard. Mortality, 18(3), 215–234. https://doi.org/10.1080/13576275.2013.819322
Rugg, J. (2013b). Constructing the grave: Competing burial ideals in nineteenth-century England. Social History, 38(3), 328–345. https://doi.org/10.1080/03071022.2013.816167
Rugg, J., Stirling, F., & Clayden, A. (2014). Churchyard and cemetery in an English industrial city: Sheffield, 1740–1900. Urban History, 41(4), 627–646. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0963926814000285
Secretary of State. (2001). The government reply to the eighth report from the environment, transport and regional affairs committee session 2000–2001 HC91 cemeteries. The Stationery Office.
Sleeswijk, A. W., van Oers, L. F. C. M., Guinée, J. B., Struijs, J., & Huijbregts, M. A. J. (2008). Normalisation in product life cycle assessment: An LCA of the global and European economic systems in the year 2000. Science of the Total Environment, 390(1), 227–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.09.040
Sloane, D. C. (2002). Purified by fire: A history of cremation in America. Journal of American History, 88(4), 1545–1546. https://doi.org/10.2307/2700673
Solomon, S. (2007). (IPCC 2007): Climate change the physical science basis. American Geophysical Union, 9(1), 123–124.
The British Standards Institution. (2008). Reciprocating internal combustion engines. Exthaust emission measurement. Measurement of gaseous and particulate exhaust emissions under field conditions (BS ISO 8178-2:2008). London.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2007). Climate change 2007: The physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press.
Tidåker, P., Wesström, T., & Kätterer, T. (2017). Energy use and greenhouse gas emissions from turf management of two Swedish golf courses. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 21, 80–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.11.009
Waite, C. (2021, February 2). 2019 UK greenhouse gas emissions, final figures. Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/957887/2019_Final_greenhouse_gas_emissions_statistical_release.pdf
Wang, Y. T., Wang, F. C., Hong, J. L., & Sun, M. X. (2016). The development of life cycle assessment theory research in China and analysis of countermeasures. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 36(22), 7179–7184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.08.065
Wang, Y., Zhao, G., Peng, P., Liang, L., & Li, C. (2018). Evaluation of agrosystem eco-efficiency using a coupling model of emergy analysis and life cycle assessment: A case study in the suburbs of Beijing City, China. Journal of Agro-Environment Science, 37(6), 1311–1320.
West, T. O., & Marland, G. (2002). A synthesis of carbon sequestration, carbon emissions, and net carbon flux in agriculture: Comparing tillage practices in the United States. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 91(1–3), 217–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(01)00233-X
Yang, J., & Wang, S. (1998). Retrospect and prospect of life cycle assessment. Advances in Environmental Science, 6(2), 21–28.
Yoshioka, T., Inoue, K., & Hartsough, B. (2015). Cost and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission analysis of a growing, harvesting, and utilizing system for willow trees aimed at short rotation forestry (SRF) in Japan. Journal of the Japan Institute of Energy, 94(6), 576–581. https://doi.org/10.3775/jie.94.576
Yuanyuan, J., & Wei, R. (2016). Research on the carbon emission from the daily use and maintenance on the basis of life cycle of landscape architecture. Landscape Architecture, 9, 121–126. https://doi.org/10.14085/j.fjyl.2016.09.0121.06
Yuan-Yuan, J. I., Genovese, P. V., Wang, T., & Liang, X. (2020). Research on carbon source and carbon sink of landscape life cycle based on low carbon concept — a case study of shilinyuan residential area in Tianjin. Chinese Landscape Architecture, 296(36), 69–73. https://doi.org/10.19775/j.cla.2020.08.0068
Bartlett, M. D., & James, I. T. (2011). Are golf courses a source or sink of atmospheric carbon dioxide? A modelling approach. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part P: Journal of Sports Engineering and Technology, 225(2), 75–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754337110396014
Beebeejaun, Y., McClymont, K., Maddrell, A., Mathijssen, B., & McNally, D. (2021). Death in the peripheries: Planning for minority ethnic groups beyond “the city”. Journal of Planning Education and Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X211043275
Boret, S. (2010). From social to ecological immortality: Kinship, identity and death in Japanese tree-burial. Oxford Brookes University.
Brown, P., Broomfield, M., Buys, G., Cardenas, L., Kilroy, E., MacCarthy, J., Murrells, T., Pang, Y., Passant, N., Ramirez, G. J., Thistlethwaite, G., & Webb, N. (2016). UK Annual National Inventory report: 1990-2014. Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy.
Cao, L., Li, M., Wang, X., Zhao, Z., & Pan, X. (2014). Life cycle assessment of carbon footprint for rice production in Shanghai. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 34(2), 491–499. https://doi.org/10.5846/stxb201304240794
Clayden, A., Green, T., Hockey, J., & Powell, M. (2014). Natural burial: Landscape, practice and experience. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315771694
Clayden, A., Green, T., Hockey, J., & Powell, M. (2017). Cutting the lawn – natural burial and its contribution to the delivery of ecosystem services in urban cemeteries. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 33, 99–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.08.012
Colombo, A. D. (2016). Why Europe has never been united (not even in the afterworld): The fall and rise of cremation in cities (1876–1939). Death Studies, 41(1), 22–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2016.1257881
Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment. (2007). Cemeteries, churchyards and burial grounds. Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment.
Darlington Historical Society. (2022, January 05). The historic development of cemeteries in England. https://darlingtonhistoricalsociety.wordpress.com/general-information/the-historic-development-of-cemeteries-in-england/
Davis, S. L., & Dukes, M. D. (2014). Irrigation of residential landscapes using the toro intelli-sense controller in southwest Florida. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 140(3), 04013020. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0000694
Dominguez, S., Laso, J., Margallo, M., Aldaco, R., Rivero, M. J., Irabien, Á., & Ortiz, I. (2018). LCA of greywater management within a water circular economy restorative thinking framework. Science of the Total Environment, 621, 1047–1056. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.122
Dunnett, N., & Hitchmough, J. (2014). The dynamic landscape: Design, ecology and management of naturalistic urban planting. Routledge.
EDINA. (2018, April 30). Digimap, England. http://digimap.edina.ac.uk/roam/os
Fountoulakis, M. S., Markakis, N., Petousi, I., & Manios, T. (2016). Single house on-site grey water treatment using a submerged membrane bioreactor for toilet flushing. Science of the Total Environment, 551–552, 706–711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.02.057
Gabarró, J., Batchellí, L., Balaguer, M. D., Puig, S., & Colprim, J. (2013). Grey water treatment at a sports centre for reuse in irrigation: A case study. Environmental Technology, 34(11), 1385–1392. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2012.750382
Google Map. (2018, May 12). Yorkshire, England. https://www.google.co.uk/maps/place/Yorkshire,+UK/@53.928258,-2.3285799,214708m
Gu, C., Crane II, J., Hornberger, G., & Carrico, A. (2015). The effects of household management practices on the global warming potential of urban lawns. Journal of Environmental Management, 151, 233–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.01.008
Haas, G., Wetterich, F., & Köpke, U. (2001). Comparing intensive, extensified and organic grassland farming in southern Germany by process life cycle assessment. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 83(1–2), 43–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(00)00160-2
Historic England. (2022, January 03). Landscapes of remembrance: Register of parks and gardens selection guide. https://historicengland.org.uk/images-books/publications/drpgsg-landscapes-remembrance/heag091-landscapes-of-remembrance-rpgsg/
Hitchmough, J. (2008). Plant user handbook: A guide to effective specifying. Wiley.
Hsien, C., Low, J. S. C., Fuchen, S. C., & Han, T. W. (2019). Life cycle assessment of water supply in Singapore — A water-scarce urban city with multiple water sources. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 151, 104476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.104476
Ingram, D. L. (2012). Life cycle assessment of a field-grown red maple tree to estimate its carbon footprint components. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 17(4), 453–462. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-012-0398-7
Integrated Knowledge for our Environment. (2021, August 3). IKE eBalance 4.7.14120.518, Cheng Du, China. http://www.ike-global.com/#/
Jeong, H., Broesicke, O. A., Drew, B., & Crittenden, J. C. (2018). Life cycle assessment of small-scale greywater reclamation systems combined with conventional centralized water systems for the city of Atlanta, Georgia. Journal of Cleaner Production, 174, 333–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.10.193
Jo, H. K., & McPherson, G. E. (1995). Carbon storage and flux in urban residential greenspace. Journal of Environmental Management, 45(2), 109–133. https://doi.org/10.1006/jema.1995.0062
Kato, M. (2001). Cremation and the change of the double funeral system in the Amami and Okinawa societies of Japan. Bulletin of the Folklore Society of Japan, 228(1–34), 182.
Kaufman, M. (1999). Recycling yourself (ecological burial). Earth Island Journal, 14(2), 37–38.
Li, S. H. (2010). Symbiosis and circulation− the basic thought of urban green space construction under low-carbon economic society. Chinese Landscape Architecture, 26(6), 19–22. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1000-6664.2010.06.010
Li, X., Hu, F., Bowman, D., & Shi, W. (2013). Nitrous oxide production in turfgrass systems: Effects of soil properties and grass clipping recycling. Applied Soil Ecology, 67, 61–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2013.03.002
Li, X., Yang, Y., Xu, X., Xu, C., & Hong, J. (2016). Air pollution from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons generated by human activities and their health effects in China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 112, 1360–1367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.05.077
Lindholst, A. C. (2008). Improving contract design and management for urban green-space maintenance through action research. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 7(2), 77–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2008.02.001
Liu, Y., & Yang, Q. (2019). The quantitative research of the maintenance environmental impacts in the urban greenspace based on LCA. Chinese Landscape Architecture, 35(10), 124–129. https://doi.org/10.19775/j.cla.2019.10.0124
Liu, Y., Yang, Q., & Duan, L. (2018). Adjusting the structure combinations of plant communities in Urban greenspace reduced the maintenance energy consumption and GHG emissions. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management, 26(4), 261–274. https://doi.org/10.3846/jeelm.2018.6126
Mapbox. (2018, April 26). Outdoors studio. https://www.mapbox.com/studio/styles/kkelivnliu/cjh2tggxy1pw92smmqxxyycan/edit/?layerIds
McCready, M. S., & Dukes, M. D. (2011). Landscape irrigation scheduling efficiency and adequacy by various control technologies. Agricultural Water Management, 98(4), 697–704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2010.11.007
McCready, M. S., Dukes, M. D., & Miller, G. L. (2009). Water conservation potential of smart irrigation controllers on St. Augustinegrass. Agricultural Water Management, 96(11), 1623–1632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2009.06.007
McKenzie, J. (2018, December 21). Greenhouse gas footprint of maintained landscape. https://thefield.asla.org/2010/06/08/greenhouse-gas-footprint-of-maintained-landscapes/
Met Office. (2018, April 25). UK Climate. https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/climate/gcqzwtdw7
Ministry of Justice. (2007). Burial Grounds: The results of a survey of burial grounds in England and Wales. Ministry of Justice.
Ministry of Justice. (2009). Natural burial grounds guidance for operators. Ministry of Justice.
Mukherjee, P., Das, M., Mukherjee, B., & Das, S. (2020). Optimization of irrigation design technique for pumping units through software simulation analysis for varied landscapes. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 505, 012025. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/505/1/012025
National Standardization Administration. (2021). General rules for calculation of the comprehensive energy consumption (GB/T 2589-2020). Beijing.
National Statistics. (2019, June 24). UK local authority and regional carbon dioxide emissions national statistics: 2005-2019. Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy. https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/uk-local-authority-and-regional-carbon-dioxide-emissions-national-statistics
Nowak, D. J., Hirabayashi, S., Bodine, A., & Greenfield, E. (2014). Tree and forest effects on air quality and human health in the United States. Environmental Pollution, 193, 119–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.05.028
Nowak, D. J., Hirabayashi, S., Doyle, M., McGovern, M., & Pasher, J. (2018). Air pollution removal by urban forests in Canada and its effect on air quality and human health. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 29, 40–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.10.019
Oestigaard, T. (1999). Cremations as transformations: When the dual cultural hypothesis was cremaed and carried away in urns. European Journal of Archaeology, 2(3), 345–364. https://doi.org/10.1177/146195719900200304
Peace Funerals. (2018, April 21). Golden Valley Woodland burial ground. https://www.peacenaturalburials.co.uk/locations/golden-valley
Philo, C. (2012). Troubled proximities: Asylums cemeteries in nineteenth-century England. History of Psychiatry, 23(1), 91–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957154X11428931
Röös, E. (2013). Analysing the carbon footprint of food. Insight for consumer communication [Doctoral thesis No. 2013:56]. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences.
Rotar, M. (2011). European echoes upon Romanian cremationist movement. Annales Universitatis Apulensis Series Historica, 15(Special), 279–288.
Rugg, J. (2013a). Choice and constraint in the burial landscape: Re-evaluating twentieth-century commemoration in the English churchyard. Mortality, 18(3), 215–234. https://doi.org/10.1080/13576275.2013.819322
Rugg, J. (2013b). Constructing the grave: Competing burial ideals in nineteenth-century England. Social History, 38(3), 328–345. https://doi.org/10.1080/03071022.2013.816167
Rugg, J., Stirling, F., & Clayden, A. (2014). Churchyard and cemetery in an English industrial city: Sheffield, 1740–1900. Urban History, 41(4), 627–646. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0963926814000285
Secretary of State. (2001). The government reply to the eighth report from the environment, transport and regional affairs committee session 2000–2001 HC91 cemeteries. The Stationery Office.
Sleeswijk, A. W., van Oers, L. F. C. M., Guinée, J. B., Struijs, J., & Huijbregts, M. A. J. (2008). Normalisation in product life cycle assessment: An LCA of the global and European economic systems in the year 2000. Science of the Total Environment, 390(1), 227–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.09.040
Sloane, D. C. (2002). Purified by fire: A history of cremation in America. Journal of American History, 88(4), 1545–1546. https://doi.org/10.2307/2700673
Solomon, S. (2007). (IPCC 2007): Climate change the physical science basis. American Geophysical Union, 9(1), 123–124.
The British Standards Institution. (2008). Reciprocating internal combustion engines. Exthaust emission measurement. Measurement of gaseous and particulate exhaust emissions under field conditions (BS ISO 8178-2:2008). London.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2007). Climate change 2007: The physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press.
Tidåker, P., Wesström, T., & Kätterer, T. (2017). Energy use and greenhouse gas emissions from turf management of two Swedish golf courses. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 21, 80–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.11.009
Waite, C. (2021, February 2). 2019 UK greenhouse gas emissions, final figures. Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/957887/2019_Final_greenhouse_gas_emissions_statistical_release.pdf
Wang, Y. T., Wang, F. C., Hong, J. L., & Sun, M. X. (2016). The development of life cycle assessment theory research in China and analysis of countermeasures. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 36(22), 7179–7184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.08.065
Wang, Y., Zhao, G., Peng, P., Liang, L., & Li, C. (2018). Evaluation of agrosystem eco-efficiency using a coupling model of emergy analysis and life cycle assessment: A case study in the suburbs of Beijing City, China. Journal of Agro-Environment Science, 37(6), 1311–1320.
West, T. O., & Marland, G. (2002). A synthesis of carbon sequestration, carbon emissions, and net carbon flux in agriculture: Comparing tillage practices in the United States. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 91(1–3), 217–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(01)00233-X
Yang, J., & Wang, S. (1998). Retrospect and prospect of life cycle assessment. Advances in Environmental Science, 6(2), 21–28.
Yoshioka, T., Inoue, K., & Hartsough, B. (2015). Cost and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission analysis of a growing, harvesting, and utilizing system for willow trees aimed at short rotation forestry (SRF) in Japan. Journal of the Japan Institute of Energy, 94(6), 576–581. https://doi.org/10.3775/jie.94.576
Yuanyuan, J., & Wei, R. (2016). Research on the carbon emission from the daily use and maintenance on the basis of life cycle of landscape architecture. Landscape Architecture, 9, 121–126. https://doi.org/10.14085/j.fjyl.2016.09.0121.06
Yuan-Yuan, J. I., Genovese, P. V., Wang, T., & Liang, X. (2020). Research on carbon source and carbon sink of landscape life cycle based on low carbon concept — a case study of shilinyuan residential area in Tianjin. Chinese Landscape Architecture, 296(36), 69–73. https://doi.org/10.19775/j.cla.2020.08.0068